Memory and Memory Errors

Memory is the mental faculty of retaining and recalling previous experiences. It plays an
essential role in decision making, as it forms its unique lifestyle habits based on experiences.
However, memory is not always an accurate recording of an event and can be distorted during
encoding the event or the recall the event. One of the main theories in memory studies is the
reconstructive model, which argues that remembering is the result of reconstructing events from
details and schema. This means the memory may be changed by the relative emphases or some
formal results (Bartlett, 1932). While testing the process of recall, some verbs used while presenting
information could lead to differences in answers, and ultimately, memory alteration (Loftus and
Palmer,1974). In one of the studies in memory errors, researchers found out that giving people false
information about a type of food preference affected their memory, attitudes, and even behaviors
about the food (Bernstein, Laney, Morris, and Loftus, 2005).
According to Bartlett (1932), remembering is an active and reconstructive process, which
means information is retrieved and changed to suit existing schemas. Thus, the features of a recall
are rationalisation, confabulation, and distortion, which make the memory logical, consistent, and
truthful. It could involve speculation of the motive of the events, filling in the gap unconsciously, or
even changing the details to fit the schemas. What may lead to memory errors? How can natural
false memories be promoted by using the features of the recall? Does it work as an eyewitness? In
addition to Bartlett’s theory on schemas, the decay theory attempts to explain the loss of
information from longterm and short term memory. However, progress on the latter is more
challenging to test due to impossibility in creating a blank period of time.
The Loftus and Palmer tried to test whether the post-event information can influence people’s
memory in one study in 1974. The experiment let the participants watch a traffic accident film, and
let them judge the speed of the car. For the independent variables, the researcher grouped
participants into five different groups depending on the verbs Clark (1973) on the question, such as
smashed, collided, bumped, hit, and contacted for experiment one, while hitting, and smashed for

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the second experiment. According to the results, the higher the speed the participants estimated, the
stronger the word used in the question. Also, in experiment two, the people in the smashed group
were more likely to report seeing broken glass than hit group and control group (Smashed:16, Hit:7,
Control:6). Overall, the verbs used in the question can play a role in memory errors since it is a kind
of automatic mental process for people to recall rationalization, confabulation, and distortion.
One of the strengths of the study is a kind of laboratory experiment, so the experiment is well-
controlled and standardized. For example, the question asked to the participants only replace the
key verbs, and the structure remained the same. Thus, it was precise control of extraneous to make
surer that the verbs used in the question is only one factor to influence the judgment to improve the
internal validity. Also, as a standardized procedure, the experiment is easy to replicate, so the
reliability is high. Therefore, the verbs used in the question to influence memory are reliable.
Regarding the weaknesses of the study, the research is done in the laboratory where as in real
life people do not watchh traffic accidents on the screen. It indicates there could be significant
differences in emotion levels and reaction. Thus, the study lacked mundane realism or ecological
validity. Also, Loftus and Palmer (1974) only considered the events and the after information about
the acccident, while it is the pre-event information to influence perception and emotions. In this
case, results might have been different in real life.
Memory may be distorted to some extent, and the false belief or memory relay can lead to
different results(Bernstein, Laney, Morris, & Loftus, 2005). Also, recall includes the confabulation
and distortion, which means the brain fill in the gaps and try to fit in logic. In Bernstein et. al
(2005), the researchers hypothesized that if an individual has a false memory (which is a negative
experience of a particular food) he will avoid this kind of food and vice versa. People could change
their eating habits or change their attitude to one kind of food because they trusted the wrong
results, which is influenced by giving them wrong reports about their eating habits from the
questionnaires. Laney et al. researched one one specific type of food (asparagus) to test whether the
memory errors really can change the participants’ eating habits successfully in 2008.

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The experiment allocated participants into two groups. One was denoted a “love group”
whereby the participants were convinced that they liked eating asparagus as children; another is a
control group that does not receive the false belief. All participants did five questionnaires about
food or restaurants, and two for them were distractors. Then the participants from the love group
received false results about their love for asparagus when they were young, while the participants
who took part in the control group did not receive false results. As a consequence, the love group
and control group rated asparagus similarly (Love:1.7, Control:1.5) before gaining the false
information but altered differently (Love: 4.2, Control: 2.5) after the false information gained. Also,
the FPQ questionnaire showed believers (among 58 participants in the love group, 40 of them are
believers) reported greater desire to eat asparagus than the control group and believers rated
asparagus as more delicious than the control group (believers: 5.1, control: 4). Overall, giving
people false information about food preferences will affect their behaviours, attitudes and even
memory about food.
The experiments resemble laboratory experiments to enhance reliability, hence standardized,
which means the steps for every participant are the same. The questionnaires have the same
questions and time given to participants and scored the same way. Thus, the research was easy to
replicate, so it had higher reliability. Also, the additional two questionnaires as distractors kept the
internal validity high since it prevents the participants from working out the true aim of the study.
This means that the independent variable is the only one to influence the dependent variables.
Therefore, it would be correct to conclude that people can develop false belief and these beliefs can
affect their behaviors and food preference.
However, the experiments lacked mundane realism (the task of writing questionnaires or
rating food photos are not everyday tasks), and the ecological validity could be low. Thus,
participants’ behavior may be different in real life. Furthermore, one more limitation for the
experiment is the uncertainty for the duration of the consequences of false belief. It only took a few

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minutes to complete the questionnaires and a re-test after one week. Therefore, although the
experiment shows the false belief can alter participants’ lifestyles, we cannot be sure whether the
results are effective in the long-term.
In conclusion, specific clues or facts influence memory. Owing to the features of recall,
rationalization, confabulation, and distortion; the fluency and logic of the memory when recalled is
not always accurate. The memory can also be distorted by these three functions, and the extennt of
words used in the questions or the outcomes of the questionnaires both can affect the memory and
even make up the false memories. Therefore, the things people remember are not always the truth.
Healthy diets are useful in maintaining a healthy memory.

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References

Loftus, E. F. & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of auto-mobile destruction: An example of the
interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour,
13, 585-589.
Yogi, P. (2020). Eyewitness Testimony | Psych Yogi. Retrieved 24 January 2020, from
http://psychyogi.org/loftus-and-palmer-1974-eyewitness-testimony/
McLeod, S. A. (2014, Jan 11). Loftus and Palmer. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/loftus-palmer.html
Laney, C. Morris, E. Bernstein, D. Wakefield, B. & Loftus, E. (2008). Asparagus, a Love Story.
Experimental Psychology, 55(5), 291-300. doi: 10.1027/1618-3169.55.5.291
Laney et al. (Asparagus: A Love Story). (2020). Retrieved 23 January 2020, rom
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gpF_7iI2sdQ
Learning_theories:schema_theory [Learning Theories]. (2020). Retrieved 24 January 2020, from
https://www.learning-theories.org/doku.php?id=learning_theories:schema_theory