Mary Astell

Women writers have been a huge part of literature. However, the focus has tended to tilt
towards male writers. Women writers have at times been erased from history, and their works are
considered insignificant. However, over the last three decades, medieval women’s writing has
become the center of attention of scholarly research. However, the established ‘canon’ of
medieval English literature has remained unchanged. Scholarship on medieval women’s writing
has not been sufficient to challenge the canon of medieval English literature. The notion of a
canon has been promoted by individuals keen on forgetting women’s contributions to literary
culture. An analysis of writers such as Mary Astell reveals that the divide between female and
male writers is unfounded.
Brief Overview of Mary Astell’s Career
Mary Astell was born in 1666 and passed on in 1731. She was an English writer and is
considered by many to be an English philosopher (Squadrito 87). She moved to London in 1688
following the death of her mother and Aunt. While living in London, she met various influential
women, including Judith Drake, Lady Mary Wortley, and Elizabeth Thomas. These women
became her patrons as well as her mentors. They helped her develop her writing skills and helped
her publish her work. She subscribed to the ideas driven by Bathsua Makin. She believed that

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women are equally rational compared to their male counterparts. She also strongly believed that
women ought to be given educational opportunities. She began publishing anonymously, and her
earliest work was By a Lover of Her Sex (Squadrito 89).
Mary was an advocate of setting up an all-female college in England that would help
women pursue their educational goals. In the year 1700, she published one of her most famous
works, titled Some Reflections Upon Marriage (Squadrito 90). In this publication, Mary engaged
in critiquing the institution of marriage in England and warned women against getting into the
trap of marriage. She further argued that education would help women function better in society.
According to Mary, women who are educated are likely to function better in marriages and are
likely to make informed matrimonial choices.
On the flip side, Astell warned that women who were not properly educated would
become miserable. She stated that the institution of marriage would likely work better if it was
based on true friendship. In making marriage decisions, women should look for certain
characteristics in potential marriage partners. These characteristics include the art of being
understanding as well as being levelheaded. Mary developed the ideas further in her third edition
of Some Reflections Upon Marriage (Squadrito 93). She responded to her critiques and
advocated for the rights of women and young girls. She engaged in the bold discourse of women
rights and did not fear any outcomes that would result from such action. Her bold nature in
tackling topics that appeared sensitive at the time made her name to be written in various history
books. Other notable publications include A Proposal to the Ladies and By a Lover of her Sex.
Theoretical Analysis

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Astell’s work shows her views of the relationship between production and reproduction
and how they eventually lead to economic, political, and sexual inequality. The liberal political
theory emerged when Astell wrote the book Some Reflections Upon Marriage. Like most women
of her time, she was suspicious about their place in the modern democratic state. Power was
shifting during 1700, and the ruling class was directing the shift away from women. Only women
that had the privilege to acquire an education could understand the social and political
dimensions of the time. This explains why Astell keeps insisting on the need for women to
acquire higher education. Only women who were literate enough could understand the
contemporary political process of the time.
Astell took issue with the democratic theorists of the day. Her work depicts the gender
inequalities of her time and how men were engaging in calculative moves to ensure that power
shifted even further away from women. Astell had wanted to publish her political views, but she
could not do so publicly. She published her views anonymously as women had not been included
in the day’s public affairs. She recognized that her feminine status had not improved. Her book is
a reaction to the republican government as she realized that the rhetoric “government for the
people” was never meant to include women. She openly criticizes the double standards in the
family as well as in the state (Leduc 9). This explains why in the book, she refers to women as
“poor female slaves” (Astell 47). While men in her society lived freely, women were enslaved by
the virtual of their gender. In the book, Astell blames all the misfortunes that befall women on
external forces such as getting married to men and kicking education. She cautions women to
wait until they are ready before getting married. She cites the example of Mazarin, who got
married at a tender age only for her to leave her marriage because she did not quite understand
what it entailed. She was not happy and thus sought a divorce. Additionally, she encourages

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women to acquire education as this is the only way to truly liberate themselves (Astell 62). She
writes that a woman could be robbed of impunity by her husband, and not even the laws of the
land could give her redress. Thus, the system supported inequality in favor of men, and this
triggered Astell to write about it using marriage as the starting point.
Analysis in relation to social and political events in the 1700s
The book was published in 1700, and it shows the social context of the author’s time. In
the book, Astell reflects upon the unhappy marriage of the duchess of Mazarin, Hortense
Mancini. The marriage is a broader pretext of her wider examination of the marriages of her
time. She explores the moral dangers of being in a marriage as a woman without exploring the
greatness of the mind. She speaks passionately about women. She advises them to first cultivate
certain greatness of mind and a personal disposition towards happiness despite the prevailing
external circumstances (Astell 91). The way she speaks about marriages points to a trend in
marriages during her time where women were not happy in marriages. She urges them to work
towards achieving their own happiness even though they may find themselves in unhappy
marriages.
Further, Astell notes that marriages of her time would be happier if only men did not
have ulterior motives and their conduct was desirable. She denounces power imbalance in
marriages of her day (Leduc 3). She points that marriages would be happier if men did not marry
out of selfish desires to possess women’s money and their physical beauty. If men had a love of
benevolence, then their wives would be in happy marriages. The blame seems to be directed
towards men. The men of her time were frustrating women by marrying them because they
wanted to own their physical beauty and have control over their money.

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Astell’s book shows that she lived in a society that had massive inequalities in its
marriage practices. She notes that when a woman made the decision to get married, she put
herself in her husband’s power. If the matrimonial yoke turned grievous or the marriage became
unhappy, neither the customs nor the law of her time could accord her the same redress as her
husband (Astell 27). In her words, marriage is like a monarch. She urges women to avoid
electing a “monarch for life” since they do not have anyone on their side (Astell 33). In the event
that women consider getting married, then Astell advises them to first equip themselves with
education. This statement also shows that most women in the 1700s were not literate. Lack of
education affected how they reacted once they found themselves in unhappy marriages. Further,
the author notes that education was important for women during her time as it would enable them
to understand the gravity of marriage and understand the meaning of their betrothed status, the
intent as well as their position in society.
Further, Astell’s Christian conception of God influenced her views in the book, Some
Reflections Upon Marriage. Although she points out that women are unhappy in marriages and
that the fault was majorly men’s because they entered the marriages with other intentions other
than loving their partners, she does not say that the solution is divorce. She instead states that
God always does what is best (Astell 13). The world and everything that is in it, including
women and their husbands, are created according to God’s eternal and immutable standards.
Thus, women should live their lives according to Gold’s law and reason. When they do this, they
will find the ultimate happiness. Astell seems to point to religion as the ultimate solution to all
problems, including the social problem of women being in unhappy marriages.
Astell views marriage as a sacred institution that has been ordained by God. Moral
failings of human beings, and specifically men, had led to the degeneration of marriage as

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destined by God. She complains that the original blessed state of marriages had changed. She,
however, states that there is hope. If men changed their attitude towards marriage, then its
blessed state would be restored. She advises men to drop their brutish passions and be guided by
a love of benevolence in their pursuit of wives. She, however, extends a word of caution towards
women. She tells them to be wary of entering a marriage. Remarkably, she does not advocate for
divorce but advises those who have not joined the institution of marriage not to do so until they
are ready.
Marriages of her day required that women offer blind submission to their husbands,
whether he deserves it or not. She notes that the expectation of submission may lead a woman to
act according to earthly self-interests as opposed to the law of God (Springborg 221). If this was
to happen, then a woman would find herself in an unhappy marriage that could potentially
destroy her soul. She points to the aspect of submission as being intended by God. She
recommends higher education for women. If Mancini had received a good education in religion
and philosophy, then she would not have been affected by her husband’s abuse to the extent of
resulting in moral degradation.
Astell’s political approach in her work demonstrates certain inconsistencies in her beliefs.
First, she strongly believes that social and family hierarchies are part of God’s divine plan and
the beauty of existence. However, she also acknowledges that the married state is a huge obstacle
to a women’s attainment of her full potential. The married state, in the author’s words, is not
compatible with a women’s fulfillment of her potential as a human being. Her arguments appear
discontinuous, but it is clear that she describes issues surrounding marriage from a religious and
philosophical context. She asserts that the tormenting and unhappy marriage makes the woman
better and prepares her for heaven. This happens if the conditions of the marriage leave the

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woman in “solitude and silence” (Astell 40). It appears then that the woman must resist the
temptations of moral degradation that an unhappy marriage presents.
If a woman is to reach the intellectual and spiritual state of nirvana, then she must
persevere the tormenting marriage. She advises women not to be like the Duchess of Mazarin,
who divorced her husband because she could not persevere any longer. In this context, the author
seems opposed to divorce and views it unfavourably hence the reason she cautions women
against it. According to the author’s ideas on feminine superiority, Mazarin errored when she
sought earthly consolations for her tribulations (Springborg 223). Divorce precluded the Duchess
from martyrdom.
Marriage is the institute of heaven, and it cannot be blamed for the failings of a husband
and wife. Marriage is the only honorable way of continuing a marriage. Astell then believes that
the only fundamental thing for a woman to do within the divinely painful marriage arrangement
is to sit down quietly and be content with her experiences, and nothing should bring a cloud upon
her reputation (Astell 39). Thus, the only way through which women can demonstrate their
inherent moral superiority is through submission. Mazarin’s decision to divorce his husband was
thus a demonstration of inferior morality, according to Astell. Astell’s arguments show that
divorce was a rare thing in the 1700s, and this is why Mazarin’s divorce was widely discussed
and even written about by authors like Astell. Women were oppressed and seemed to be content
with the status quo. Whoever chose better for themselves appear like a rebel because that is not
how the women of Astell’s days were accustomed to behaving.
Text-Based Analysis

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Astell’s use of semantics is intended to convey a specific and unique message to the
reader. She uses language carefully to build her vindication of women. Specific words are used
to sensitize women to their alienated condition as she encourages them to pursue education. The
point of view, specifically the use of pronouns, stands out in her work. The use of pronouns in
the book highlights a variety of elements of the author’s rhetoric. When she intends to denounce,
she uses the pronoun “they”, exhorts using the pronoun “you”, and establishes complicity using
“we”. The pronoun “I” rarely appears in her work. For instance, she writes, “if you would be
revenged of your enemies, live well” (Astell 6). The pronoun you here is used to directly speak
to women asking them to live well, acquire education and not be like Madam Mazarine. Further,
she writes, “What Qualifications do they look after in a Spouse? What will she bring is the first
enquiry? How many Acres? Or how much ready Coin?” (Astell 14). Here, “they” refers to men
and how they selfishly look for a woman’s wealth when selecting a suitable partner for marriage.
The author is unsparing in her denunciation of those responsible for the plight of women
(Sutherland 82). She denounces this behavior and is opposed to it as it eventually creates an
unhappy marriage that is built on the wrong foundations.
Additionally, Astell’s references to the two genders show a subversiveness of
traditionally feminine roles. She depicts relationships between men and women in a manner that
catches the reader’s attention. She appears to allude to the existence of feminine nature. While
men commit many vices that affect women, women’s faults are not attributed to their nature but
rather to external factors such as lack of education. For instance, Mazarin’s decision to seek a
divorce is blamed on her lack of education. Astell writes, “Had Madam Mazarine’s Education
made a right improvement of her Wit and Sense; we should not have found her seeking Relief by
such imprudent, not to say Scandalous Methods, as the running away in Disguise with a spruce

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Cavalier” (Astell 6). The author finds her actions wrong, but she is not to blame as she would
have acted better if only she had been educated. However, when she writes of men, it appears
that the vices they commit are because of their nature (Sutherland 82). There seems to be a
masculine nature to do wrong and make women suffer.
An Argument for Inclusion in the Cannon of Major British Works of Literature
The idea of a cannon results in certain literary works being overlooked and, in extreme
cases, forgotten. It dictates what is worthy of being remembered and what is not worthy (Mcavoy
and Diane 3). The idea of a cannon introduces an important issue which is not whether or not
women’s literary works should be remembered but how the works should be remembered
(Mcavoy and Diane 3). Great literary works are not just remembered in isolation, but rather they
are remembered owing to the shared ideas that they introduce. Mary Astell’s Reflections Upon
Marriage qualifies to be a great literary work that expresses brilliant ideas as well examines
critical societal issues that few had the courage to explore. It is a body that contains shared ideas
that have been an important part of society. Its exclusion from the British Cannon is not founded
on its lack of brilliance but rather on the gender of the author.
Research on women drawn from medieval times reveals that the works that they
produced were based on collaboration. Women like their male counterparts were involved in
shaping their publications (Mcavoy and Diane 10). Their publications would later be adapted by
male writers and the ideas reshaped. In certain instances, female writers were inclined to publish
anonymously. Publishing anonymously was based on the fear of expressing ideas that would be
criticized by an overly judgmental audience. Mary was one of the authors that published her
initial works anonymously. However, she would later gather the courage and collaborate with
various patrons who helped ensure that her works were well done. To this end, her work

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Reflections Upon Marriage deserves recognition not just because of the brilliant ideas expressed
but also because of the effort that went into its production.
Astell’s Reflections Upon Marriage was recognized by Cambridge’s expanded canon of
Western Political Thought. Her recognition is based on her brilliant nature of exploring the early
institution of marriage. Astell was seen as exploring the absurdity of political contractarianism.
She explored the traditional principle of hierarchy and the consequences of the adoption of this
principle into the private realm. In Mary’s work, she reflects on the institution of marriage not
just to understand men and women but also to gain insights on gender relations and political
relations. Mary Astell is credited as the first writer to examine the moral hazard associated with
choosing to subject oneself to power that suited one’s own interests (Broad 717). Astell’s
brilliance is further seen in her keen intent to improve her book. Several editions of the book
were produced, with each edition seeking to answer what critics had to say. Astell would be keen
on integrating various ideas that she had acquired over time, and this makes her work worthy of
recognition.
In the third edition of Reflections Upon Marriage, Astell was keen on integrating John
Loke’s works on slavery. She examined how women in a marriage setup were subjected to the
arbitrary will of another man (Broad 717). Astell showed that marriage could be seen as slavery
in the Lockean sense. Her text is philosophical and goes over and beyond to reach a conclusion.
Her argument is founded on a series of rhetorical questions that resonate with feminists. She
makes reference to Locke’s definition of slavery in Two Treatizes of Government. She asks a
critical question on why men are born free while women are born in slavery (Broad 718). She
highlights the hypocrisy in society, and her work has served as the foundation of many feminist
writers. She compares the institution of marriage to the state and sees women being bound to the

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will of their male counterparts in marriage. Her brilliant philosophical analysis of marriage
makes her work exemplary and well-deserving of inclusion into the Canon of Major British
Works of literature.
Conclusion
Mary Astell remains an influential writer and a trailblazer. Her works have inspired many
writers. Her work Reflections Upon Marriage deserves recognition in the British canon of major
works of literature. The cannon has remained unchallenged owing to the fact that it is inclined to
favor male writers while overlooking the works of female writers. The works of female writers in
medieval history was, however, important and key in the emergence of English literary tradition.
Mary’s work has played an important part in inspiring present female writers.

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Works Cited

Broad, Jacqueline. “Mary Astell on marriage and Lockean slavery.” History of Political
Thought 35.4 (2014): 717-738.
Leduc, Guyonne. “Mary Astell as a Critic of Power Relations in Domestic and Political
Patriarchy.” (2010): 1-16.
Astell, Mary. Reflections upon marriage. R. Wilkin, 1706.
Mcavoy, Liz Herbert, and Diane Watt. “Introduction: Women’s Literary Culture and Late
Medieval English Writing.” The Chaucer Review 51.1 (2016): 3-10.
Springborg, Patricia. Mary Astell, Critic of the Marriage Contract/Social Contract Analogue. na,
2002.
Squadrito, Kathleen M. “Mary Astell.” A history of women philosophers. Springer, Dordrecht,

1991. 87-99.
      Sutherland, Christine Mason. The Eloquence of Mary Astell. University of Calgary Press, 2005.